Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers in the nervous system that transmit signals between nerve cells (neurons) and other cells in the body, such as muscle cells or gland cells. They play a crucial role in the communication between neurons, which is essential for various functions, including mood regulation, cognition, movement, and the functioning of various organs.
Neurotransmitters are released from the synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, a small gap between neurons. They then bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, facilitating the transmission of the nerve impulse.
Amino Acids
Glutamate: The main excitatory neurotransmitter, essential for synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. It is involved in most aspects of normal brain function, including cognition, emotion, and sensory information processing.
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA): Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, it reduces neuronal excitability and helps regulate muscle tone, playing a crucial role in calming the nervous system.
Glycine: Acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, particularly in the spinal cord, brainstem, and retina. It also contributes to motor and sensory information processing.
Monoamines
Dopamine: Regulates pleasure and reward pathways, motivation, and motor control. Imbalances can lead to conditions like Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia, highlighting its importance in both mental and physical health.
Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline): Critical for attention, arousal, and the body’s fight-or-flight response. It enhances alertness and focus while also playing a role in mood regulation and stress response.
Epinephrine (Adrenaline): Key hormone and neurotransmitter in the fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate, muscle strength, blood pressure, and sugar metabolism, preparing the body for intense physical activity.
Serotonin: Influences mood, appetite, sleep, and memory. It helps stabilize mood and feelings of well-being, with deficiencies often linked to depression and anxiety disorders.
Histamine: Involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles, appetite, and immune responses. It plays a role in local immune responses and functioning as a neurotransmitter in the brain.
Peptides
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol, a crucial hormone for stress response, metabolism, and immune function regulation.
Angiotensin II: Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance by constricting blood vessels and stimulating the release of aldosterone, which increases sodium and water retention.
Beta-Endorphin: Provides potent pain relief and promotes feelings of pleasure and euphoria by binding to opioid receptors, significantly influencing pain perception and emotional states.
Bradykinin: Mediates inflammation and pain, causing blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable, contributing to the inflammatory response and pain signaling.
Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP): Involved in vasodilation and pain transmission, it plays a significant role in migraine pathophysiology and cardiovascular homeostasis.
Cholecystokinin (CCK): Stimulates digestion and satiety. It is released after eating and helps induce feelings of fullness, playing a role in appetite regulation and digestive processes.
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH): Stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland, initiating the stress hormone cascade and playing a central role in the stress response.
Dynorphins: Modulate pain and stress responses through their action on kappa opioid receptors, playing a role in regulating mood, stress, and addiction.
Hypocretins (Orexins): Regulate wakefulness and appetite, playing a crucial role in maintaining the sleep-wake cycle and energy homeostasis. Deficiency is linked to narcolepsy.
Leptin: Controls energy balance by inhibiting hunger and regulating fat storage, providing feedback to the brain about the body’s energy status and influencing appetite and metabolism.
Substance P: Involved in transmitting pain signals to the brain and also plays a role in inflammation and the stress response, contributing to the body’s pain perception and inflammatory processes.
Endorphins: Natural painkillers produced in response to stress or discomfort, they promote a sense of well-being and reduce pain perception by binding to opioid receptors in the brain.
Enkephalins: Part of the body’s natural pain relief system, they modulate pain and stress by binding to opioid receptors, similar to endorphins, and influence mood and immune responses.
Galanin: Modulates mood, feeding behavior, and pain, influencing various physiological processes, including neurogenesis, memory, and the stress response.
Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH): Promotes the release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland, essential for growth, metabolism, and muscle and bone development.
Oxytocin: Promotes social bonding, childbirth, and lactation. It is known as the “love hormone” for its role in social interactions, sexual reproduction, and during and after childbirth.
Melatonin: Regulates the sleep-wake cycle by signaling the brain about the time of day, helping to synchronize circadian rhythms and promote sleep.
Neuropeptide Y: Regulates appetite, anxiety, and circadian rhythms. It is involved in various physiological processes, including stress response, energy balance, and neurogenesis.
Neurotensin: Influences dopamine signaling and can modulate pain perception, body temperature, and the release of other hormones, impacting various physiological functions.
Neurokinin A: Involved in pain perception and inflammatory responses, it acts as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator, affecting various bodily functions, including smooth muscle contraction.
Neurokinin B: Influences reproductive hormone regulation, playing a role in the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and affecting reproductive function and behavior.
Prolactin: Stimulates milk production in the mammary glands and has over 300 functions in the body, including roles in metabolism, immune regulation, and development of the nervous system.
Somatostatin: Inhibits the release of several hormones, including growth hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone. It also regulates the endocrine system and affects neurotransmission and cell proliferation.
Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH): Stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland, which in turn stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP): Regulates smooth muscle activity, secretion of digestive juices, and water and electrolyte balance in the intestines. It also has vasodilatory and immunomodulatory effects.
Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone, ADH): Regulates water balance in the body by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys and also influences blood pressure and social behaviors.
Purines
Purines (Adenosine and ATP): Involved in energy transfer and signal modulation, adenosine promotes sleep and suppresses arousal, while ATP serves as an energy currency and neurotransmitter.
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine: Essential for muscle activation and contraction, it also plays a significant role in memory and learning by transmitting signals in the brain and influencing attention and arousal.
Gasotransmitters
Nitric Oxide (NO): Involved in vasodilation and neurotransmission.
Carbon Monoxide (CO): Functions in neuromodulation.
Lipids
Anandamide: Involved in pain, mood, and appetite regulation.
2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG): Acts on cannabinoid receptors and has various physiological effects.
Cytokines and Growth Factors
Interleukins: Play key roles in immune response regulation, acting as signaling molecules that mediate communication between cells to coordinate the body’s defense against infections.
Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF): Involved in inflammation and immune system regulation, it helps protect against infection and cancer but can contribute to inflammatory diseases if unregulated.
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF): Supports the growth, development, and survival of neurons, playing a critical role in learning, memory, and cognitive function.
Neurotrophins: Promote the development and survival of neurons, including BDNF, nerve growth factor (NGF), and others, critical for neuroplasticity and repair after injury.
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